Renaissance, and it was never originated as an idea: “But the 
philosophers of nationalism did not make its vogue. The vogue 
was there when they appeared on the scene. They merely 
expressed and gave some emphasis and guidance to it. For the 
historian they are extremely useful in that they afford him vivid 
illustrations of current tendencies in nationalist thought.” He 
ridicules the idea that “the masses of mankind are instinctively 
nationalist,” or that nationalism is natural at all: “During much 
the longest periods of recorded history the groups to which 
individuals have been predominantly loyal have been tribes, 
clans, cities, provinces, manors, guilds, or polyglot empires. Yet 
it is nationalism, far more than any other expression of human 
gregariousness, which has come to the fore in modern times.” 
(p. 292)

     The answer to Hayes’ problem is in the efficacy of the